Ed4 0 Information Systems for Business User Guide

Information Systems for Business

Edition 4.0
Information Systems for Business
An Experiential Approach
Bélanger | Van Slyke | Crossler
Prospect Press

Information Systems for Business
An Experiential Approach
Edition 4.0 APPENDICES A­K
France Bélanger
Virginia Tech
Craig Van Slyke
Louisiana Tech University
Robert E. Crossler
Washington State University

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Contents
Appendix A: Computer Hardware Appendix B: Computer Software Appendix C: Access Fundamentals Appendix D: Advanced Access Appendix E: Advanced Database Concepts Appendix F: Excel Fundamentals Appendix G: Advanced Excel Appendix H: Networking Basics Appendix I: Security and Privacy Appendix J: Funding Information Technology Appendix K: Managing IS Projects

A1 A11 A23 A35 A51 A69 A81 A99 A111 A125 A133

Appendix A
Computer Hardware
Learning Objectives
By reading and completing the activities in this appendix, you will be able to:
· Discuss the history of computing hardware and systems · Identify the major hardware components of information systems · Identify the various types of input and output technologies and their uses · Describe the main types of primary and secondary storage technologies
and their characteristics
Appendix Outline
Introduction Computer Hardware Generations Computer Hardware Platforms Focusing Story: Convergence
Learning Activity A.1: What Do I Want for a PC? Hardware Components
Learning Activity A.2: Is Moore’s Law Accurate? Learning Activity A.3: A Chip for My PC? Learning Activity A.4: Life in the 3-D World
Introduction
The focusing story provides an example of how the utilization of computers has changed as a result of convergence. Convergence can be defined as the tendency for different technological systems to evolve toward performing similar tasks. An example of convergence is using a single device to handle media, Internet, entertainment, and telephony needs. While convergence is constantly changing the computing landscape, it occurs as the result of the functionality of its parts. In this appendix, we present a discussion of the various hardware components that enable computers to perform as they do. These building blocks provide the foundation for the converged technologies we enjoy today.
Computer Hardware Generations
Hardware refers to the physical equipment involved in the input, processing, output, storage, and control activities of an information system. Hardware for information systems has evolved over the years. Today, we usually refer to the five main generations

A2 Appendix A

of hardware as those that used vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits, microprocessors, and massively parallel processing. Table A.1 summarizes the different generations, and pictures can be seen here: http://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_funda mentals/computer_generations.htm.

TABLE A.1 Computer Hardware Generations

Generation Approximate Dates Technology Used

First

1946­59

Vacuum tubes

Second Third

1959­65 1965­71

Transistors Integrated circuits

Fourth

1971­80

Microprocessors

Fifth

1980­?

Superconductors and parallel processing

Comments
Tubes were used as amplifiers and also to represent binary numbers. Magnetic drums were used for memory. These computers used a lot of space and required a lot of electricity. Computers that would take up an entire room then had less power than you probably have in your smartphone.
These were much smaller and much more efficient, replacing tubes.
Transistors were reduced in size, and many could be placed on a silicon chip, also known as a semiconductor. This again reduced space and energy requirements and made the systems more efficient.
At this point, thousands of integrated circuits could be placed onto each silicon chip. This allowed smaller and more powerful computers, leading to the PC and some of the very small devices you use today.
It is unclear exactly what the fifth generation will be. There was an attempt to use massive parallel processing to get computing to another level, but it is unclear that it has succeeded. Others suggest that grid computing (defined below) has the potential to be the fifth generation.

Computer Hardware Platforms
Individuals and organizations need different levels of computing power, which is why different computer hardware platforms exist. You are most likely familiar with personal computers, which are in the category of microcomputers. These are small enough and inexpensive enough that today most individuals have access to one even if they do not own one. These include laptops, notebooks, netbooks, tablets, and desktop computers.

Computer Hardware A3
FOCUSING STORY
Convergence
When you check email, visit Web pages, communicate with friends, talk on the phone, and take pictures, you are likely doing so on an individual device–your smartphone. This ability to use one device to accomplish all these tasks is a somewhat new phenomenon as the result of convergence. When one of us was an undergraduate student in the late 1990s, the Internet was a fairly new technology, as were email and Web pages. To send email or visit Web pages, you would often use a computer in the computer lab (for two main reasons: first, not many undergraduates owned personal computers because of their cost, and second, the Internet was much faster in a lab than dial-up at home). When friends wanted to communicate, they would either call each other on the phone or seek out one another and communicate face-to-face. At that time, some students carried pagers so that they could know if they needed to go find a phone to return a phone call. Pictures were often taken with cameras that required film, which had to be developed into printed pictures.
Today, the tasks that used to require a number of different devices have converged so that they can be completed all on the same device. For example, a smartphone allows you to perform all the tasks discussed above and then some. Likewise, tablet computers, such as the iPad, are a result of convergence. They allow you to perform many functions all on one compact and portable device. Unfortunately, with the convergence of devices often comes a trade-off in quality, resulting in some people desiring to have a single-function device for some functions. For example, tablet computers have not replaced laptops for many individuals because of the difficulty of typing on the touch screen. As a result, people will either add a keyboard (partly defeating the goal of convergence) or also own a laptop for times when they need to be productive. Similarly, the quality of pictures taken with cameras on smartphones is not up to the quality of stand-alone digital cameras. What you want to accomplish with the pictures may dictate whether you also own a separate digital camera.
Focusing Questions 1. List all the tasks you can perform with a smartphone. 2. Identify how these tasks would have been completed prior to them converging into a smartphone. 3. Identify advantages that this convergence has created for individuals and then for businesses. 4. Identify challenges this has created for businesses as well as examples of when businesses may want to utilize single-function devices.
LEARNING ACTIVITY A.1
What Do I Want for a PC?
In this activity, you will “build” your own computer at the Dell website. Go to http://www .dell.com and use the Products menu, then select “Laptops for Business.” Select a laptop computer and then hit the Customize & Buy button. Identify all the options presented to you and which ones you would decide to pay for. Bring your final configuration to class.
In class, be prepared to discuss the following:
1. Which options were available to customize? 2. How did you decide whether to pay for certain options? 3. Which options would you change if this laptop was to be used for your
business, which runs 24/7 (24 hours per day; 7 days per week)?

A4 Appendix A
In organizations, however, you are likely to find large computer hardware platforms such as midrange computers and mainframe computers. Some specific organizations even have supercomputers. Midrange computers, also called minicomputers, are often used as servers (see Chapter 7).They offer much greater computing capacity than personal computers and can therefore be accessed and used by several users simultaneously. When organizations need substantial computing–for example, to process billing transactions for a telecommunication company–they tend to use mainframes, or large computers that can handle many thousands of users and/or transactions at the same time. While you may hear that the age of the mainframe is over, you would be surprised to find that most large corporations use mainframes extensively today. Supercomputers, on the other hand, are meant for organizations that need excessive processing capacities and speed. For example, models to predict weather require such levels of processing, as do analyses of genetic data. It is possible to achieve great processing power with smaller (e.g., midrange) computers by loosely connecting them together with middleware. This is referred to as grid computing, where computing resources from different locations, organizations, or domains are loosely combined to achieve their goal.
For personal computers, there is also an important categorization you might encounter: personal computers are often classified as thin clients or thick clients. This refers to the level of processing that is performed on the personal computer. In a thick client, the personal computer is involved with much more processing and storage activities, whereas in a thin client, the personal computer performs less processing and storage and instead uses a server to handle most processing. Some of you or your friends might have used a Chromebook, the most common example of a thin client.
Hardware Components
The main categories of hardware include the CPU, storage technologies, input technologies, and output technologies.
LEARNING ACTIVITY A.2
Is Moore’s Law Accurate?
For this activity, you need to identify what Moore’s law is and conduct research on it. Determine whether it has been accurate over the years. Be prepared to discuss these questions in class:
1. What is Moore’s law? 2. Has it been accurate over the years? 3. What has made it possible to sustain Moore’s law so far? 4. What is the future of Moore’s law?

Computer Hardware A5
Central Processing Unit The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is where the processing takes place, which is the handling of computations or instructions given to it by the system. In other words, it is really the brain of the computer. The CPU itself is made up of several components. The control unit handles instructions and controls the flow of data to the various parts of the CPU. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs the actual computations, while registers are used to store data and instructions temporarily. Figure A.1 shows a simplified version of a CPU.
Figure A.1 Components of a Simplified CPU
LEARNING ACTIVITY A.3
A Chip for My PC?
For this activity, you need to research the current developments in microprocessors (chips). First, try to identify which microprocessor (chip) is used in your personal computer. Then, go to a microprocessor manufacturer’s website and identify its most recent products. Two examples are Intel (http://www.intel.com) and Advanced Micro Devices (http://www.amd.com). (Tip: For the Intel page, select “Products,” and for the AMD page, select “Processors.”) Write a short report on the most current commercially available chips, their performance, their cost (if available), and the expected future developments of each chip.
In class, compare your findings with classmates. Be prepared to discuss the following: 1. What are the processing speeds of the company’s fastest chips? What do
these speeds mean? 2. Which company seems to offer the most advanced microprocessors today? 3. What does the future hold for microprocessors? For that company?

A6 Appendix A
LEARNING ACTIVITY A.4
Life in the 3-D World
Most of the devices we are familiar with are two-dimensional devices. However, the world of 3-D is becoming mainstream today, with many television sets offering 3-D screens. They used to require geeky glasses but are getting close to the point where such glasses won’t be required. This is the new world of 3-D. However, 3-D is not limited to television. There are now many 3-D displays, as well as 3-D printers, 3-D semiconductors, and virtual reality headsets and devices, such as the Oculus Rift and Samsung Gear VR. Select one of these 3-D technologies and perform research. Write a short essay about how the technology works, what its main advantages and disadvantages are, and what you find most surprising about the technology.
Input and Output Devices A wide variety of input technologies are available to use with computers. You probably frequently use keyboards and mice, or maybe consoles and joysticks for playing games. Many other input devices–such as touch screens, cameras, styluses, digital pens, and even microphones for voice recognition–are used to interact with various devices. When you use a kiosk, you use touch-screen technology. When you write on a tablet PC like the Microsoft Surface Pro, you most likely use a stylus. Your smartphone likely uses a touch screen. Still other devices provide inputs to information systems without human interaction, such as barcode scanners, magnetic ink readers, remote sensors, magnetic stripe readers, chip readers, optical character recognition sensors, and even the radio-frequency identification tags discussed in Chapter 12.
There are also many output devices, such as the monitors and printers you may use every day. Other output devices include voice devices like speakers and headphones, projectors, plotters, and other industrial devices managed by information systems. Today, we are seeing an increasing number of devices that use three-dimensional outputs, such as 3-D displays and 3-D printers. Many universities have “maker labs” that have workstations where you can design a product, which you print on a 3-D printer. The prices of basic 3-D printers have dropped to the point where they are affordable for home use.
Storage Technologies People often look at two factors in deciding which personal computer to buy: processing power and memory. Processing power depends on the CPU used, as described in the previous section. Memory actually refers to two types of storage technologies related to the computer: primary and secondary memory.
Primary storage or main memory represents the amount of temporary memory available for storing information as the CPU is handling the applications and functions used on the computer.The types of information stored in main memory include data to be used for processing, instructions for the CPU to process the data, and applications that are used by the computer. The main memory can affect the performance of your computer if, for example, you have a small amount available but typ-

Computer Hardware A7
ically try to run many applications (open programs) at the same time. The types of main memory include registers (briefly mentioned when talking about the CPU), random-access memory (RAM), and cache. RAM is the one that best describes main memory–small amounts of data or parts of applications being stored while in use for processing. Cache is used for storing data that are used more often (instead of leaving them in secondary storage) to improve computer performance. All these are managed by the computer’s operating system and are considered volatile, in that they are cleared when the computer is turned off. An additional type of memory is read-only memory (ROM), which is a storage location for critical instructions that is nonvolatile.
Secondary memory, also called permanent memory, is where you store your files and programs. While it takes longer for the computer to access secondary storage, it is considered permanent in that saved files are not removed when the power is turned off. Many devices are used for secondary storage, and the cost of these devices continues to go down every year. You are familiar with small USB devices described in the book. Over very few years, their cost remained relatively low and stable while their capacity went from 128 Kb to 128 GB and more today. The same is true for larger devices. Technologies for secondary storage also include magnetic tape (not many today) and disks and optical devices, such as compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), digital video disc (DVD), and Blu-ray Disc. Newer devices are gaining popularity in optical storage, such as holographic memory that uses three dimensions to store data.
Solid-state drives (SSDs) have become popular, especially for lightweight laptops and portable storage. Traditional drives are mechanical, with one or more platters (a small, circular magnetic plate that stores data) that rotate rapidly while a read-write head moves back and forth along the platter to read or store data. In contrast, SSDs have no moving parts; they store data on semiconductors, much like USB thumb drives. SSDs are lighter and much faster than traditional drives, use less power, and are more reliable. However, an SSD is more expensive than a traditional drive with the same storage capacity.
For large companies that have multiple storage devices and huge amounts of data, making sure the data are not lost is very important. Many organizations therefore use something called a redundant array of independent disks (RAID) to ensure that the data are stored redundantly, which provides organizations with a way to make sure they have access to the data if something happens to one of their storage devices (since a copy of the data is maintained on a different disk). This allows the company to continue operations with little to no downtime.
Summary
In this appendix, we discussed basic concepts related to information systems hardware, starting with different hardware generations and platforms. We then discussed the hardware components of an information system, starting with the central processing unit (CPU) and continuing with input and output devices and storage.

A8 Appendix A
Here are the main points discussed in this appendix:
· There are five main information systems hardware generations: hardware using vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits, microprocessors, and parallel processing or grid computing. The main hardware platforms include microcomputers, midrange computers, mainframe computers, and supercomputers. When several computing resources are loosely connected together to achieve their goal, they form grid computing. When personal computers are involved with more processing and storage activities, they are called thick clients, whereas in a thin-client configuration, the computer performs less processing and storage and instead uses the services of a server, such as a midrange computer, to handle most processing.
· The major hardware components of information systems include the CPU, input and output devices, and storage. The CPU handles the computations or instructions given to it by the system.
· A wide variety of input technologies are available to use with computers, such as keyboards, mice, consoles, joysticks, touch screens, cameras, pointing sticks, styluses, digital pens, and microphones. Others include barcode scanners, magnetic ink readers, remote sensors, magnetic strip readers, optical character recognition sensors, and radio-frequency identification tags. Output devices include speakers, headphones, projectors, plotters, and other industrial devices managed by information systems.
· There are two types of storage: primary and secondary. Primary storage or main memory is temporary memory available for storing information as the CPU is handling the applications and functions used on the computer. Types of main memory include registers, random-access memory, cache, and read-only memory. Secondary memory is where files and programs are kept for permanent storage (if they are not deleted). Types of secondary memory devices include USB devices; magnetic tape and disks; optical devices, such as compact disc read- only memory (CD-ROM), digital video disc (DVD), and Blu-ray Disc; and solidstate drives (SSDs). A redundant array of independent disks (RAID) maintains a copy of data in several locations.
Review Questions
1. What do we refer to when we talk about hardware? 2. What are the various generations of information systems hardware? 3. What are the key differences among transistors, integrated circuits, and
microprocessors? 4. How do mainframes and midrange computers differ? What are their
similarities? 5. What is a thin client? A thick client?

Computer Hardware A9
6. What is a supercomputer? 7. What is grid computing? 8. What are the components of a CPU? 9. What are the different types of memory or storage? 10. What is RAID storage, and what is its purpose?
Reflection Questions
1. What is the most important thing you learned in this appendix? Why is it important?
2. What topics are unclear? What about them is unclear? 3. What relationships do you see between what you learned in this appendix
and what you learned in other parts of the text? 4. How is the material in this appendix related to the material in Appendix B? 5. Explain how a mainframe is similar to and different from a supercom-
puter. 6. Explain how the computer generations presented in Table A.1 support
the ideas proposed by Moore’s law. 7. What is the difference between grid computing and distributed comput-
ing? 8. Why is there a need for primary storage, such as registers or cache? 9. What relations can you draw between the functioning of the CPU and
security threats discussed in the book? 10. Why do you think we are seeing increasing storage capacities on devices
at such low costs?
Glossary
Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU): The component of the CPU that performs the actual computations.
Blu-ray: A type of secondary memory device that uses optical technology that superseded the DVD.
Cache: Memory used for storing data that are used more often to improve computer performance.
Central processing unit (CPU): The component of a computer where the processing or handling of computations or instructions is done.
Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM): A type of secondary memory device that uses optical technology.
Control unit: The component of the CPU that handles instructions and controls the flow of data to the various parts of the CPU.
Convergence: The tendency for different technological systems to evolve toward performing similar tasks.
Digital video disc (DVD): A type of secondary memory device that uses optical technology that superseded the CD-ROM.

A10 Appendix A
Grid computing: Computing resources from different locations, organizations, or domains loosely combined to achieve their goal.
Hardware: The physical equipment involved in the input, processing, output, storage, and control activities of an information system.
Holographic memory: A type of secondary memory device that uses three dimensions to store data.
Integrated circuits: The third generation of information system hardware; include many transistors.
Magnetic tape and disks: A type of secondary memory technology. Mainframes: Large computers that can handle many thousands of users and/or trans-
actions at the same time. Microcomputers: Small computers for individual use; include laptops, notebooks, tab-
lets, and desktop computers. Microprocessors: The fourth generation of information system hardware; include
thousands of integrated circuits; currently used in most computers. Midrange computers: Computers that offer greater computing capacity than personal
computers and can be accessed and used by several users simultaneously. Also called minicomputers. Networked computers: Thin clients. Primary storage: Represents temporary memory available for storing information as the CPU is handling the applications and functions used on the computer. Also called main memory. Random-access memory (RAM): Memory where small amounts of data or parts of applications are stored while in use for processing. Read-only memory (ROM): Nonvolatile memory where critical instructions are stored. Redundant array of independent disks (RAID): A type of secondary memory where a copy of data is maintained on several disks to ensure that the data are stored redundantly. Registers: Components of the CPU used to store data and instructions temporarily. Secondary memory: Memory where files and programs are stored. Also called permanent memory. Solid-state drive (SSD): A secondary storage device that stores data on semiconductors rather than magnetic platters. Supercomputers: Very large computers meant for organizations that need excessive processing capacities and speed. Superconductors: The fifth generation of information system hardware; allow parallel processing; few devices currently available. Thick client: A personal computer with substantial processing and storage facilities. Thin client: A personal computer performing less processing and storage, instead using a server, such as a midrange computer, to handle most processing. Transistors: The second generation of information system hardware; smaller and more efficient than vacuum tubes. Vacuum tubes: The first generation of information systems hardware.

Appendix B
Computer Software
Learning Objectives
By reading and completing the activities in this appendix, you will be able to:
· Distinguish between system software and application software · Describe the relationship between system software and application soft-
ware · Describe the main functions of an operating system · Describe the purpose of utility software · Name and describe several frequently used kinds of utility software · Use four dimensions to classify application software · Explain the concept of an “app store” and why they are important to
mobile operating system companies
Appendix Outline
Introduction Types of Software Focusing Story: Installation of Software
Learning Activity B.1: Why Did You Choose Your Operating System? Learning Activity B.2: Find a Utility Applications Learning Activity B.3: Classify Applications App Stores Learning Activity B.4: Find an App Learning Activity B.5: App Usage
Introduction
Throughout this book, we have discussed many different kinds of software. This appendix gives you some additional information about software, including descriptions of some types of software not discussed elsewhere in the book. Software is an organized set of data and instructions that govern the operation of a computer. Procedures for using a computer are also considered part of software.
Types of Software
There are two major categories of software: system software and application software. Usually, you use a computer to complete some task–write a paper, look something up

A12 Appendix B

FOCUSING STORY
Installation of Software
Most of us use numerous apps (application software packages) on our smartphones and tablets. These apps allow us to play games, access social media, read e-books, send text messages, check email, and perform numerous other tasks. As is the case with any computing device, the usefulness of the device is a function of the apps on it. Imagine having an iPhone but using it for nothing more than phone calls. The popularity of smartphone apps is shown by the millions of apps in the Google Play Store and Apple App Store. Apps are so useful that there’s an old geek joke that goes something like this: What do you call a computer without application software? The answer: A boat anchor. Don’t worry if you didn’t laugh; the joke is usually funny only to old geeks. The point of the joke is that apps are what make computing devices useful, whether the device is a laptop, smartphone, tablet, or mainframe. This was true in the earliest days of computing, and it will remain true in the future.
Focusing Questions
Think about the first issue, the ease with which software can be pirated, and answer the following questions:
1. What are your favorite apps on your smartphone or tablet? Why are they your favorites? In other words, what do they let you do on your device?
2. What are your most-used applications on your computer? What do these apps let you do?
3. How do the two lists compare? Are there differences in what you do on your smartphone, tablet, and computer?

on the Web, send an email, or play a game. Application software lets you perform these

tasks; it is software that includes the computer programs and procedures necessary to

carry out some specific task. When you use a computer, most of the time you are

interacting with application software. However, the application software cannot

operate without system software. System software controls the operation of the com-

puter’s hardware. It also serves as the

platform on which application software

operates. Figure B.1 shows the relation-

ship between application software and

system software.

While system software is usually

transparent to the user, it is sometimes

necessary to interact directly with sys-

tem software. Usually this happens

when you need to perform some house-

keeping chore, such as uninstalling soft-

ware; deleting, copying, or moving files;

or scanning your computer for viruses

and/or spyware. The point to remember

Figure B.1 Relationships among Application Soft- is that application software lets you

ware, System Software, and Hardware

accomplish what you want to do with

Computer Software A13
the computer, while system software is a “necessary evil” that enables your computer to operate properly.
System Software System software essentially serves as an interface between application software and the hardware of the computer. We can divide system software into two broad categories: operating systems and utilities.
Operating Systems All computers require an operating system. This includes devices such as smartphones and game consoles, as well as more obvious computers, such as laptops and desktop personal computers. In addition to providing a platform for running application software, operating systems also manage multiple, simultaneous users and programs, making sure they do not conflict. Operating systems also perform basic functions, such as sending output to devices such as printers and monitors; accepting input from keyboards, mice, and the like; and managing files. Most operating systems also provide networking functions. The fact that operating systems provide these functions relieves application programmers from the need to include these functions in their programs. They simply provide the code necessary to instruct the operating system to perform the function. For example, when you print a file using your word processor, the word processor software sends a message to the operating system telling it to print the document. The application does not have to include instructions on exactly how to perform the printing; it simply sends a printing request to the operating system, which does the rest.
The kernel is one of the most important operating system components. The kernel manages communication between the computer’s hardware resources and application programs. For example, the kernel handles input and output requests and manages the computer’s memory.
Memory management is one of the most important functions of the kernel. Managing memory is very complicated, especially when several large programs are running, which can require more primary storage than the computer has. In these cases, the kernel uses a method called paging to allow the programs to run. Paging basically takes some of the contents of primary storage and sends them to secondary storage (such as a hard drive); this is virtual primary storage. The kernel swaps data between physical and virtual primary storage according to which open applications need to access data at that particular moment. You may have noticed that your computer slows down when you have many applications open at one time. One reason for this is that the kernel has to do more swapping when many applications are running.This swapping takes time, which slows down the computer’s responsiveness. This is also why adding random-access memory (RAM) to a computer often results in significant performance improvements.
Applications communicate with the operating system through system calls. System calls are usually implemented through an application program interface (API). The API provides application programmers with a set of routines or protocols (rules)

A14 Appendix B
LEARNING ACTIVITY B.1
Why Did You Choose Your Operating System?
What operating systems do you use for your PC and mobile phone? Why are you using these particular operating systems? How well do the two systems interact with one another? Write a one-page report that answers these questions. Compare your responses with another student.
for asking the kernel to perform a task. While this makes programmers’ work easier, it also ensures a more consistent experience for users. For example, the process for saving a document has the same look and feel for almost all Windows programs. This is because most developers of Windows-based applications use the Windows API to perform the task of saving a file.
Windows 10, Apple’s macOS, Chrome OS, and Linux are popular personal computer operating systems. (Note that there are many different distributions of Linux, such as Ubuntu and Fedora.) Windows in its various forms still holds a large portion of the PC operating system market. As of July 2020, Windows held more than 77% of the market. Google’s Android and Apple’s iOS are popular operating systems for smartphones. Larger computers, such as mainframes, run a variety of operating systems, including Unix, IBM’s z/OS, Solaris, Linux, and HP-UX. Many operating systems are based on the Unix operating system. Examples include Linux, macOS, Solaris, and HP-UX.
Which is the best operating system? That is largely a matter of opinion. Most have their advantages and disadvantages, and all accomplish essentially the same tasks. The most important thing to consider when choosing an operating system is whether the application programs you need can run on the operating system. For example, if you absolutely must have Microsoft Access, you need to run some version of Windows. If GarageBand is a must for you, then you have to use macOS. If the applications you need run on multiple operating systems, then the choice comes down to your preferred hardware and interface. For example, many people who purchase a Mac do so because they like the interface, while many Windows users prefer the wider choice of hardware available for Windows. The openness of the operating system is also a consideration. Proprietary operating systems such as Windows and macOS are controlled by a single company, whereas Linux is open source and therefore is much more open.
Utility Software Utility software consists of programs that perform tasks related to the management of a computer. As is the case with operating systems, few people would buy a computer just to run utility software. Rather, utilities help you manage your computer. Antivirus software is a good example. You would not buy a computer just to run antivirus software, but this utility helps keep your computer operating correctly by avoiding viruses.

Computer Software A15
Distinguishing between operating systems software and utility software is sometimes confusing. This is because many utility functions are now built into operating systems. Disk defragmenting software is an example. (Over time, hard drives can become fragmented, which means that data for a single file can be spread across different parts of the drive. This can hurt performance. Defragmenting software fixes this problem.) Defragmenting software is included in Microsoft Windows (look in the System Tools folder) but is also available as a separate utility. Years ago, it was only available as a utility.
The following are some popular examples of utility software:
· File compression and archiving: If you have ever received a “zipped” file, you probably needed an “unzipping” utility to extract the files from the .zip file. A .zip file serves two purposes. It compresses the included files so that they take up less space, and it also combines multiple files into a single file (the archive), which makes them easier to manage and share. Actually, .zip is only one form of file compression and archiving. Other examples include .cab, .rar, and .tar.gz. The last format (.tar.gz) is interesting because it combines an archiving format (.tar) with a compression format (.gz). Popular file compression and archiving utilities include WinZip, 7-Zip, and IZArc.
· Data backup: Data backup utilities make it easier for you to maintain a copy of your data to protect against data loss. Some operating systems include backup software, but this software is often limited in its functionality or is relatively hard to use. The ability to schedule regular backups is a feature of many backup utilities. Some backup utilities include the ability to create multivolume backups, which means that a single backup can be stored on multiple CDs or other media. Another useful backup feature is data compression, which allows the backup to use less space. However, it does make recovery a bit harder to perform. Backup utilities often give you the choice of doing a full backup (back up all data) or an incremental backup, which only backs up data that has changed since the last backup. One of the most interesting developments in backup utilities is the growing popularity of cloud-based backup utilities. Some of these are dedicated backup utilities. For example, Carbonite (https://www.carbonite.com/home3/) provides automatic or scheduled incremental backups to a remote server. One of the interesting things about cloud-based backup is that your backup files are stored remotely, which gives you an additional layer of protection (e.g., so physical damage to your home, like a natural disaster, doesn’t damage your backup). Security is a major concern for cloudbased backup, however. Dropbox (https://www.dropbox.com) is another cloud-based storage system that provides backup. Dropbox is primarily a file synchronization service, however. As a result, only files that are marked for synchronization are backed up.

A16 Appendix B
· Antimalware: Unfortunately, computer viruses, spyware, and other types of malware are a fact of life for many computer users. Utilities such as antivirus and antispyware software help protect us from malware. Most antimalware software runs in the background, continuously checking for potentially harmful software. In most cases, you can also run periodic scans to check your computer for malware. While there are threatspecific programs, several companies offer suites that protect against multiple threats. Examples of security suites include AVG, Kaspersky, McAfee, Norton, and F-Secure.
· System repair: System repair utilities, which are sometimes called system tune-up software, perform a variety of tasks intended to improve the performance of a computer. Over time, a computer can become sluggish for several reasons, including incorrect registry entries, a large number of temporary files, fragmented files, and unnecessary background processes. (The registry is a database of system configuration files.) System repair utilities clean up many of these problems. Some utilities address a specific problem, while others are suites that address multiple issues. Be careful when using system repair utilities, as there is a chance that the software could make harmful changes. You should create a backup of important data prior to doing a system tune-up.
· System migration: Getting a new computer is exciting, until you think about the hassle of having to move your software, files, and settings to the new computer. This is usually a time-consuming, complex task. System migration utilities help make this task easier. For example, PCmover attempts to move all your data, application software, and settings from one computer to another. Notice that we said “attempts.” In most cases, the migrations are not completely effective.
· File synchronization: Many computer users work on more than one computer. For example, many users have a desktop and laptop computer and use both regularly. If you have more than one computer, you have probably experienced the frustration of needing a file that is on your other computer. The backup utilities that we discussed earlier are a one-way form of file synchronization. While this is helpful for backup, it is less useful if you are trying to use multiple computers. In these cases, twoway syncing is necessary. If you have a desktop and laptop, this means that files on your laptop are sent to the desktop, and vice versa. Some synchronization systems use removable storage media, such as a USB thumb drive, to keep the computers in sync. However, network-based synchronization is often easier and more effective. Dropbox, which we mentioned earlier, is an example of cloud-based synchronization. Some utilities, such as GoodSync, can synchronize using either a network server or a USB drive.

Computer Software A17
LEARNING ACTIVITY B.2
Find a Utility
For any three types of utility programs discussed above, find two specific examples of a utility program in that category. You may not use the examples provided in the text. For each utility program, provide the following:
1. The name 2. A brief description of the utility 3. The cost
Many other utilities exist. If you experience some problem related to the operation of your computer, there is probably a utility that can help. While the utilities that we described focus on personal computers, there are also important utilities for other types of computers, such as mainframes.
Applications
Application software lets you perform specific tasks using a computer. Applications range from large-scale systems, such as enterprise systems, to computer games. You learned about many different kinds of application software throughout the book. There is an almost endless array of application software available today, so understanding the range of applications can be challenging. To help you gain an understanding of application software, we present several dimensions that can be used to classify them. These are (1) business or personal-use software, (2) general productivity or special-purpose software, (3) horizontal- or vertical-market software, and (4) locally installed or cloud-based software. Note that this is not an exhaustive list of dimensions, but it is sufficient for our purposes. Also keep in mind that there are some gray areas. For example, photo editing software can be used by individuals (personal use) or by businesses.
· Business or personal-use software: Applications can be for business or personal use. Most of the applications we describe in the book are business applications. Examples include ERP, customer relationship management, and supply chain management. Office suites, such as Microsoft Office, are also intended primarily for business use but blur the line, as this software is also often used for personal use as well. Personal-use software tends to be directed at pleasurable, entertainment-oriented uses. Examples include computer games, media players (such as iTunes), and photo viewers. Applications directed at hobbyists, such as software for keeping track of a family tree, would also be considered personal-use software.

A18 Appendix B
LEARNING ACTIVITY B.3
Classify Applications
Partner with another student. Classify each of the following applications on each of the four dimensions described above. Briefly explain each classification. Be prepared to share your responses with the class.
· Google Docs · Your school’s registration system · Microsoft Project (https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/project/
project-management-software) · AutoCAD (http://www.autodesk.com/products/autocad/overview) · Evernote (http://www.evernote.com)
· General productivity or special-purpose software: General productivity software is less focused than special-purpose software. For example, an electronic spreadsheet application can be applied to many very different tasks. The same can be said for drawing software (such as Microsoft Visio), presentation software (such as Apple Keynote), and word processors (such as Microsoft Word). Special-purpose software applications are more focused. These applications are intended to perform a more narrow set of tasks. Examples include software for accounting, computeraided design, statistical analysis, inventory control, and customer relationship management.
· Horizontal- or vertical-market software: Vertical-market software is software that is customized for use in a particular industry. Examples include software for electronic medical records, property management, manufacturing systems, and vehicle fleet management. Some of this software is very narrowly focused. In contrast, horizontal-market software can be used across a wide range of industries. CRM is an example, since it can be applied to almost any industry. Interestingly, horizontal-market software is sometimes customized for particular industries. Salesforce.com, for example, can be customized to meet the needs of industries ranging from financial services to media.
· Locally installed or cloud-based software: A few years ago, we would not have included this dimension. Today, however, there is a growing trend of accessing applications through the Internet (or other network) rather than having them installed locally. (Being installed locally means that the software is installed on the user’s computer.) The CRM application offered by Salesforce.com is an example of a cloud-based application. Google Docs is another example. Microsoft and Apple both provide cloud-based storage and applications. Spotify is a cloud-based music system that allows you to access many songs and playlists across devices. As discussed in Chapter 7, there are many advantages to cloud-based

Computer Software A19
applications, especially in terms of managing them. The main drawbacks to cloud-based software are the need to have an Internet connection and potential security vulnerabilities. As Internet access becomes more ubiquitous, we expect the use of cloud-based applications to grow.
App Stores
The rise of application stores is an interesting development in the world of computer applications. These “app stores” provide a relatively easy way to research, purchase, and install application software. App stores are primarily organized by companies that want to promote the use of their mobile operating systems. The most popular app store is Apple’s App Store. Others include Google Play, Amazon App Store, and Windows App Store. There are literally millions of applications in these stores. Apple’s App Store has more than 2,200,000 applications, while the Google Play app store includes more than 3,000,000 apps. App stores are widely used. Between Apple’s App Store and Google Play, there were just over 200 billion downloads in 2019 (Statista 2021).
The rise of app stores illustrates the importance of application software. The usefulness of a computer, particularly tablets and smartphones, is driven by the breadth and quality of the application software that it can run. Without useful, usable applications, a computer is little more than an expensive brick. Companies such as Apple and Google know this, so they provide an easy way to find and acquire applications for devices running their operating systems (iOS and Android, respectively). App stores have also promoted creativity by giving small developers a way to distribute their applications.
We need to make one final comment on app stores. Not all programs in an app store are application software. Many of the programs available in an app store are actually better classified as utility software. Backup software is just one example.
LEARNING ACTIVITY B.4
Find an App
Visit one of the app stores listed below. Find an application in each of the following categories. Briefly describe each application and list the price and the app store in which you found it.
App Category · Personal entertainment · General-purpose business · Industry specific (vertical)
App Stores · http://www.apple.com/app-store/ · https://play.google.com/store · https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/store/apps/windows

A20 Appendix B
LEARNING ACTIVITY B.5
App Usage
While mobile phones are useful for making voice calls, most of us use our mobile phones for other purposes. As discussed earlier, software applications, or apps, give smartphones the ability to entertain us, keep us up-to-date on the news, take photos, get directions, and so much more. According to a 2017 report (Perez 2017), the average user uses 9 apps per day. However, in the United States, users have an average of around 90 apps on their phones. It is not unusual for a user to download an app, use it once, then forget it’s there. As you might imagine, app developers are very interested in what makes users keep using or abandon apps. For this learning activity, think about your own app use and answer the following questions. Be prepared to discuss your answers in class.
1. What apps do you use the most? 2. How much time do you spend on these apps? 3. Have you ever deleted an app after only a few uses? If so, why didn’t you
keep using the app? 4. Have you ever downloaded an app and only used it once or twice and then
forgot it was there? If so, why didn’t you delete it? 5. What are the main differences between the apps you use and those you
abandon? How do they differ with respect to usefulness and usability? Have you noticed other differences?
Summary
This appendix provided you with more information regarding computer software. Here are the main points discussed in this appendix:
· Software can be divided into two major categories: system software and application software.
· System software controls the operation of the computer’s hardware and provides a platform for operating application software.
· Application software assists users in performing some specific task using a computer.
· Operating systems provide a platform for running application software; providing networking functions; and managing users, programs, hardware, files, and memory.
· Utilities are small programs that perform computer management tasks. · Commonly used utilities include file compression and archiving, data
backup, antimalware (e.g., antivirus and antispyware), system repair, system migration, and file synchronization. · Application software may be classified along four dimensions: (1) business or personal-use software, (2) general productivity or special-purpose software, (3) horizontal- or vertical-market software, and (4) locally installed or cloud-based software.

Computer Software A21
· “App stores” are online repositories of applications for specific operating systems, which are usually, but not always, mobile operating systems.
· App stores are important to mobile operating systems companies because they facilitate finding and acquiring application software, which is critical to the usefulness of a mobile device.
Review Questions
1. Define the term software. 2. Name and briefly describe the two main categories of software. 3. Describe the relationship between system software and application
software. 4. Name and briefly describe the two categories of system software. 5. Name the main functions of an operating system. 6. What is the purpose of the operating system kernel? 7. Name three popular personal computer operating systems. 8. Name and briefly describe six examples of utility software. 9. Briefly describe four dimensions that can be used to classify application
software. 10. What are “app stores”? Name three app stores related to mobile operating
systems.
Reflection Questions
1. What is the most important thing you learned in this appendix? Why is it important?
2. What topics are unclear? What about them is unclear? 3. What relationships do you see between what you learned in this appendix
and what you learned in other parts of the text? 4. Why can system software be considered a “necessary evil”? 5. Explain why individual preferences are important when choosing an
operating system. 6. Explain why the choice of application software is important to the choice
of an operating system. 7. Some utilities have been added to operating systems (such as the disk
defragmenting software described in the text). Why would operating systems publishers add utilities to their operating systems? 8. Choose five software applications you use frequently. (Your instructor may give you specific applications.) Use the four dimensions discussed in the text to classify each application. 9. What are the pros and cons of vertical-market software when compared to horizontal-market software? 10. When Android phones were introduced, proponents of Apple’s mobile devices sometimes cited the large number of applications in the App

A22 Appendix B
Store as a reason to adopt the iPhone rather than an Android-based phone. (There were far fewer apps for Android then, although that situation has changed.) Do you think the number of available apps is a reason to adopt a particular mobile operating system? Explain your answer.
References
Dogtiev, A. 2018. “App Download and Usage Statistics.” Business of Apps, updated January 9. http://www.businessofapps.com/data/app-statistics/#2.
Perez, S. 2017. “Report: Smartphone Owners Are Using 9 Apps per Day, 30 per Month.” Tech Crunch, May 4. https://techcrunch.com/2017/05/04/report-smart phone-owners-are-using-9-apps-per-day-30-per-month/.
Statista. 2021. “Number of Mobile App Downloads Worldwide from 2016 to 2019 (in billions).” Statistics Portal, n.d. https://www.statista.com/statistics/271644/ worldwide-free-and-paid-mobile- app-store-downloads/.
Glossary
Application software: Computer programs and procedures necessary for carrying out some specific task.
Horizontal-market software: Application software that can be used across a wide range of different industries.
Kernel: A main component of an operating system that directly controls a computer’s hardware and access to that hardware.
Operating system: Computer programs and data responsible for managing a computer’s hardware resources and providing a platform for the operation of application software.
Software: An organized set of data and instructions that governs the operation of a computer.
System software: Computer software that controls the operation of the computer and provides a platform on which application software operates.
Utility software: Small programs that perform tasks related to the management of a computer.
Vertical-market software: Application software that is customized for use in a particular industry.

Appendix C
Access Fundamentals
Learning Objectives
By reading and completing the activities in this appendix, you will be able to:
· Given a database logical schema, create a database in Microsoft Access, including the following: · · Creating tables, fields, and a primary key · · Establishing relationships between tables
· Add records to a table
Appendix Outline
· Introduction · Creating a Database in Access · Creating Tables · Creating Relationships · Populating Tables with Data
Introduction
In this appendix, we will help you learn how to create and populate a database using Microsoft Access. While most of you will probably never create large databases as a major part of your jobs, it is useful to know how to create small databases. As discussed in Chapter 5, using a database management system (such as Access) to store some types of data can be very useful. As a result, being able to create simple databases may be a handy skill in the future. Fortunately, personal-level database management systems, such as Access, make it relatively easy to create a database.
Once you have a good database design, you need to be able to do a few key things when creating the database:
· Create tables · Create fields within tables · Choose the proper data type for each field (e.g., text, numeric, date/
time) · Establish relationships among tables

A24 Appendix C
Figure C.1 Wish-List Database Schema
Once the database is created, you will also need to know how to add records to the tables that make up the database.
We will use the “Wish-List” database from Chapter 5 to illustrate how to accomplish all these tasks. The schema (design) of the database is shown in Figure C.1. Creating a Database in Access In this section, we give you step- by-step instructions for creating and populating the Wish-List database. The first step (once you have a good design) is to give the database a name. This effectively creates an empty container for the database. Microsoft Access stores all database elements, including the data, in a single file on your computer. In Access, this file has an .accdb file extension.
To create the database file, simply start Access and then click on “Blank desktop database” in Access’s Getting Started screen, as shown in Figure C.2.
One of the most important aspects of creating a new, blank Access database is knowing where it will be stored. You should make it a habit to click on the folder icon in the screen displayed in Figure C.3. This allows you to specify the location in which the database file will be stored. Also be sure to give the database a meaningful name. These steps will help you locate the database in the future. Once you have created the database file, you can start creating tables.

Access Fundamentals A25
Figure C.2 Access’s Getting Started Screen Figure C.3 Specifying the Database Name and Location

A26 Appendix C
Creating Tables Creating tables in Access is not difficult if you have a good data model. To create a table, select the “Create” ribbon and then “Table Design,” as shown in Figure C.4.
Figure C.4 Creating a Table
Selecting the Design view takes you to a form for adding the fields that make up your table, as shown in Figure C.5. Enter the name of the field in the “Field Name” column of the form. While Access allows spaces in field names, it is generally a bad idea to use them, so we recommend avoiding spaces. When a field name is made up of more than one word, capitalizing the first letter in each word (as in FirstName) makes the field name easier to read.
Figure C.5 Entering Table Information

Access Fundamentals A27

TABLE C.1 Access Data Types

Data Type

Description

Short Text

Relatively short (up to 255 characters) alphanumeric values.

Long Text

Long blocks of text. Allows more than 255 characters, up to 1GB.

Number

Numeric values. There are several different variations of the number data type, including integer (from -32,768 to 32,767), long integer, and single and double precision.

Date/Time

Time-based data, including dates and times. The data can be displayed in several different formats.

Currency

Monetary values.

AutoNumber

A number that is automatically generated for each record in a table. The numbers are stored as integer values. The only purpose of an AutoNumber field is to make a record unique.

Yes/No

Boolean values such as true/false, yes/no, and on/off.

OLE Object

External objects that conform to the OLE standard. Microsoft recommends using the Attachment data type, which is less restrictive than OLE Object.

Hyperlink

Links to email addresses, websites, documents on intranets, etc.

Attachment

Files such as images and audio. You can attach multiple files to a single record.

Calculated

Data that are calculated from one or more fields.

In addition to the field name for each field, you will also need to select the data type, which specifies what sort of data can be stored in each field. Access’s data types are listed and briefly described in Table C.1. Data types generally have additional properties that can be set. Discussing them in detail is beyond our scope. However, there is one property we want to mention. For text fields, you should set a reasonable field size rather than the default of 255 characters, which is the maximum. For example, you probably do not need 255 characters for the FirstName field. See https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Data-types-for-Access-desktop-databa ses-DF2B83BA-CEF6-436D-B679-3418F622E482 for more information about field properties.
Recall from Chapter 5 that foreign key fields are used to link tables in a relational database. When choosing data types, you must make sure that a foreign key’s data type matches that of the primary key it references. When creating a foreign key field that will refer to an AutoNumber primary key, assign the foreign key a number data type. (AutoNumber field values are stored as long integers.)
Selecting the Primary Key Fields Every table should have a primary key, as indicated in the data model. To set a primary key in Access, select the field or fields that make up the primary key by clicking on the gray area to the left of the field name (see Figure C.6). Then select the “Primary Key” ribbon button. If you do not see the button, select the “Design” ribbon

A28 Appendix C
under “Table Tools.” This will place a small key icon to the left of the primary key field(s). If the key icon is already showing for the correct field, you do not have to do anything further. If you accidentally select the Figure C.6 Selecting a Single-Field Primary Key wrong field as the primary key, simply select that field and click on the Primary Key button, which acts as a toggle and will remove the key icon next to the field.
For a table with a composite primary key (which is made up of more than one field), simply use a control-click to select all the fields in the primary key and then proceed just as you did with the single-field primary key. The key icon will appear next to each field in the primary key.
After you create a table, click the Save button, and you will be prompted to specify the name for your table. Then proceed to the next table until all the tables in the database are created. When all the tables are created, it is time to create the relationships among the tables.
Creating Relationships
Before we describe how to create relationships, we want to point out the importance of creating these relationships before you enter data. Creating the relationships first can prevent you from entering foreign key values that do not match an existing related primary key value. Without going into too much detail, suffice it to say that each foreign key value should match the value of a related primary key. When creating the relationships, we can tell Access to make sure that this rule is followed. This rule is called “referential integrity,” and it is a core principle of relational databases.
To create relationships among tables, go to the Database Tools ribbon and select “Relationships,” as shown in Figure C.7.
Figure C.7 The Relationships Button
Selecting the Relationships button will bring up the Show Table dialog box, which is shown in Figure C.8. Select all the tables, click on Add, and then click on Close.
When you close the Show Table dialog box, you will see the tables you added. You can resize and rearrange the layout of the tables to your liking. To create a relation-

Figure C.8 Show Table Dialog Box Figure C.9 Edit Relationship Dialog Box Figure C.10 Relationships Created

Access Fundamentals A29
ship, click on a foreign key field and drag it to the primary key it represents. When you release the mouse button, the Edit Relationship dialog box appears, as shown in Figure C.9. Make sure that the table containing the foreign key in the relationship is shown in the Related Table/Query column. The table that contains the referenced primary key should be in the Table/Query column. The correct fields should also be shown. Select the check box next to “Enforce Referential Integrity,” which will tell Access to make sure you do not violate the referential integrity rule we mentioned.
Continue this process until all the relationships are created. For our Wish- List database, you should see something like Figure C.10. Keep in mind that your layout might be different. You should see either an infinity symbol or a “1” at the end of each relationship line. If you do not, it is because you forgot to select “Enforce Referential Integrity.” You can correct this by right-clicking on the relationship line and selecting “Edit Relationship.” This brings up the Edit Relationship dialog box, which allows you to check the referential integrity check box. If you created an incorrect relationship, right-click on the line and select “Delete.” When all relationships are created, you can close the Relationships ribbon. If you made any changes, Access prompts you to save the changes.
Now that you have the relationships created, it is time to enter data.

A30 Appendix C
Populating Tables with Data There are several ways to enter data into an Access table. In this section, we describe how to use the datasheet view of a table to enter data. Access’s Navigation Pane, which is shown in Figure C.11, lets you view and access the objects included in the database, including tables. If you see the table into which you want to enter data, simply double- click on it. If you do not see the table, click on the downward-pointing navigation arrow, select “All Access Objects,” Figure C.11 Navigation Pane and select the table you seek.
Double-clicking on a table opens the table in the Datasheet view.This is a spreadsheet-like view of the table that facilitates data entry. Just enter data into each field and record. Navigate between fields by pressing the “tab” key or clicking on the next field. Note that a record is not entered into the database until you proceed to the next record. An example of a Datasheet view is shown in Figure C.12. Notice that (New) appears in the CustomerID field. This is because CustomerID is an autonumber data type, so Access will automatically enter the value.
All entries are restricted to the data type specified for that field. For example, you cannot enter alphabetic data into a currency field. Trying to do so results in an error similar to the one shown in Figure C.13.
Figure C.12 Datasheet View of a Table

Access Fundamentals A31
Figure C.13 Data Type Error
Another data entry error is entering a foreign key value that does not have a matching primary key value in the related table. This is a violation of the referential integrity error we discussed earlier. If an attempted entry violates this rule, you will receive an error message such as the one shown in Figure C.14.
Figure C.14 Referential Integrity Violation Error Message
Summary This appendix helped you learn how to create a database in Microsoft Access. Here are the main points discussed in this appendix:
· It is important to have a good database design prior to creating a new Access database.
· The first step in creating an Access database is to create the database’s tables.
· For each field in a table, you must select the proper data type, which specifies the data that can be stored in the field.

A32 Appendix C
· Each table should have a primary key. The primary key may be made up of one or more fields. When a primary key is made up of more than one field, it is called a composite primary key.
· It is important to create relationships among tables before entering data into the tables.
· The Datasheet view of a table allows you to enter data into the table. Additional Learning Activities
1. Create an Access database based on the data model shown below. The database stores data for a small company that organizes various types of events. Choose appropriate data types and lengths for each field. Also be sure to create the proper relationships. Add at least five records to each table.
2. Create an Access database based on the data model shown below. The database stores data related to books. AuthorOrder refers to the order in which authors’ names appear. For example, for this book, Bélanger would have an author order of 1, and Van Slyke’s author order would be 2. Choose appropriate data types and lengths for each field. Also be sure to create the proper relationships. Add at least five records to each table.

Access Fundamentals A33
3. Create an Access database based on the data model shown below. The database stores information for a small bookstore’s purchasing department. Terms refers to when the vendor must be paid. An example is Net 30, which means the full payment is due in 30 days. Choose appropriate data types and lengths for each field. Also be sure to create the proper relationships. Add at least five records to each table.
4. Create an Access database based on the data model shown below. The database stores data related to students and their membership in student organizations. Classification refers to whether the student is a freshman, sophomore, and so on. Choose appropriate data types and lengths for each field. Also be sure to create the proper relationships. Add at least five records to each table.

Appendix D
Advanced Access
Learning Objectives
By reading and completing the activities in this appendix, you will be able to:
· Retrieve specified records from a database using Query by Example · Create simple forms based on a specification · Create simple reports based on a specification
Appendix Outline
· Introduction · Database Queries · Query by Example (QBE) · Forms · Reports
Introduction
In Appendix C, you learned how to create and populate a Microsoft Access database. In this appendix, we help you learn how to retrieve data using queries and how to create simple forms and reports. Forms are used to enter records into a database and to retrieve and display small amounts of data. Reports also display data but work better than forms for larger amounts of data.
Database Queries
A query is an operation that retrieves specified records from a database. For example, you could retrieve all records related to a particular order from an order processing database. You specify which records to retrieve based on criteria related to values of fields within one or more tables. These criteria use operators such as equals (=), greater than (>), and less than (<). More complex criteria use logical operators such as “and” and “or.”
Creating a query requires specifying three main things:
· The fields to retrieve · The tables from which to retrieve the data · Which records to include

A36 Appendix D
The first two items (fields and tables) make up what database experts call projection, which is simply specifying which fields to include in a query. Since fields are contained in tables, projection also includes specifying tables. (You can’t really specify fields without specifying tables.) Specifying which records to include is called selection in database-speak. There are two other important query operations: sorting and joining. We will discuss them later.
Performing queries requires knowledge of the database’s structure. This knowledge lets you know which fields and tables to include. The database schema that we discussed earlier gives you a compact overview of the database’s structure. The schema shown in Figure D.1 shows the structure of part of the Northwind database, which is the sample database included with Microsoft Access 2007. You can receive this database from your instructor. You can view the structure of an Access database by selecting the “Database Tools” ribbon and then selecting “Relationships.” (Note: You can ignore the I# designators in the left-hand column of the tables below.)
Figure D.1 Northwind Database Schema

Advanced Access A37
Query by Example (QBE)
Relational database management systems all include one or more query languages. A query language is a method and set of rules for creating queries. Access includes two query languages: Structured Query Language (SQL) and Query by Example (QBE). SQL is a very powerful language that is widely used for software applications that interact with databases. Writing SQL queries is a specialized skill that is beyond our scope. QBE was designed to be an easier way to specify queries. While QBE is less powerful than SQL, it is easier to understand and is sufficient for many users. Because of this, we focus on QBE.
It is easier to understand QBE concepts if we work through an example. Our goal is to create a query that shows the following for all customers who are in the United Kingdom or Germany:
· CustomerID · CompanyName · City · Region · PostalCode · Country
We want to sort the results by CompanyName. To create a query, select the “Create” ribbon and select “Query Design.” This opens the Show Table dialog box. (You may remember this dialog box from when we created relationships in Appendix C.) The ribbon and dialog box are shown in Figure D.2. The next step is adding the tables that should be included in your query. Only include necessary tables. Including extra tables slows down the performance of the query and in some cases may lead to unexpected results. Select the appropriate tables and click on “Add.” In our example, we only need one table, Customers. Clicking on Close closes the dialog box. You will see the selected table(s) in the top portion of the QBE window. The next step is to select the fields to include by clicking on the field and then dragging it to the QBE grid, which is shown at the bottom of the QBE window. (Double-clicking also works.) Continue this until all the desired fields are selected. You can rearrange the fields by clicking on the gray bar above the field name in the grid, which selects the field. Then you can drag the field to the desired location. Earlier, we mentioned that sorting is an important query operation. To sort a query using QBE, simply click on the Sort row under the sort field(s) and then select either “Ascending” (A­Z) or “Descending” (Z­A). Figure D.3 shows the almostcomplete QBE grid for our query. (We still need to provide the criteria used to determine which records to include.) One limitation of QBE is that it is somewhat inflexible in specifying multifield sorts. Multifield sorts are simply sorting specifications that involve more than one

A38 Appendix D Figure D.2 Create Ribbon and Show Table Dialog Box Figure D.3 QBE Grid with Fields and Sorting

Advanced Access A39
Figure D.4 Query Results
field. For example, we might want to sort by Country, then City, then CompanyName. Access determines the order in which fields are sorted by their position in the QBE grid, with leftmost fields sorted first. That means that the field you want to sort first must be to the left of the field you want to sort next and so on. This may conflict with the order in which you want the fields to appear. In practice, this is not a major problem, since we usually use reports to display information rather than using the “raw” query results. We can change the sort order when creating the report.
Once you have the query specified, click on the Run button, which is located on the left-hand side of the Query Tools’ Design ribbon. This executes the query and shows the results in a Datasheet view, as shown in Figure D.4. You may notice that our results include companies in countries other than the United Kingdom and Germany. This happened because we have not provided row selection criteria yet. We provide the criteria next.
We use the Criteria section of the QBE grid to tell Access what to record in the query. In our case, we enter “UK” on the first Criteria line under Country and then enter “Germany” on the next line. It is important to understand that criteria on different lines are treated as “Or” conditions. In other words, as long as a record meets any of the criteria, that record is included in the query’s results. Criteria on the same line are treated as “And” conditions, which means that all criteria on that line must be met for a record to be included.
Figure D.5 shows the QBE grid with the Country criteria added. Notice that the criteria are enclosed in double quotes (” “). This is necessary when you want to match particular text values. The quotes tell Access that the entry is text rather than

A40 Appendix D
Figure D.5 Completed Query
a variable name. The Show row in the QBE grid is also worth noting. Sometimes you want to use a field in a query but do not want to show the field in the results. This usually happens when you want to select records based on a field’s value but do not want that field to show up in the query results. Unchecking the Show check box tells Access not to include that field in the query results.
Figure D.6 shows the results of our query. Note that our results now include only companies that are in the United Kingdom and Germany.
Many queries require data from more than one table. These queries are only slightly more complicated to build than our example query. The main difference is that a join operation must be completed. A join connects data from related records; usually these records are in separate tables. The good news is that Access creates these “joins” automatically, based on the relationships created when the database was built.
We want to create a query that shows the OrderID, OrderData, CompanyName, City, and Country for all orders. The results should be sorted in ascending order of OrderDate and then CompanyName (ascending). We start the same way we did for our earlier query, but this time we need to add the Orders table along with the Customers table. We need to do this because two of our fields, OrderID and OrderDate, are part of the Orders table. Next, drag the desired fields to the QBE grid and select ascending sorting for OrderDate and CompanyName. Finally, we add “UK” and “Germany” as criteria for the Country field. The completed QBE grid is shown in Figure D.7. Creating queries with more than two tables follows the same basic procedure.

Advanced Access A41
Figure D.6 Query Results
Figure D.7 QBE Grid for Multitable Query
One error that we sometimes see is forgetting a necessary table.This usually happens when a linking table is involved. (Remember that a linking table is a table that primarily serves to link records from two other tables. OrderDetails is a good example in the Northwind database.) Consider the query shown in Figure D.8, which is supposed to show the OrderID and OrderDate for each order along with the ProductName of each

A42 Appendix D
Figure D.8 Query with Missing Table
product included in each order. (Notice that there is no relationship line between Orders and Products. This tells us that something is wrong.) Unfortunately, Access lets you run this query, but the results will include too many records. We need to add the OrderDetails table, which properly links records from the Orders table to related records in the Products table. Fortunately, adding the table is easy; just click on the “Show Table” button (which is circled in Figure D.8) and add the table.
As you might imagine, you can create much more complex queries, particularly with respect to record selection criteria. Microsoft provides an informative Web page (https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/examples-of-query- criteria-3197 228c-8684-4552-ac03-aba746fb29d8) that can help you learn more about complex record selection criteria.
You can think of a query as a temporary table. Because of this, a query can be used for many of the same purposes as a table, including serving as the foundation for forms, reports, and even other queries. It is important to keep this in mind as we move to our next topics: forms and reports.

Advanced Access A43
Forms Access forms serve two main purposes. First, forms allow for easier, more controlled data entry than using the Datasheet view. Second, forms are a convenient way to display relatively small amounts of data. For example, an order entry clerk could use a form to enter data for a new order or retrieve information about an existing order. In addition, the clerk could use the form to update the existing order.
The Form Wizard is usually the easiest way to create a form, especially for casual users of Access. The Form Wizard uses dialog boxes to step you through the process of creating a form. Start the Form Wizard by selecting the “Create” ribbon and then clicking on “Form Wizard,” as shown in Figure D.9.
The first thing the Form Wizard needs to know is what table or query to use as the basis for the form. If all the data you want to use in the form are contained in a single table, you can simply select that table. If your form needs data from multiple tables, it is more effective to create a query that includes all the necessary fields and then base the form on that query. (We will discuss this method further later in this section.)
Figure D.9 Selecting a Table in the Form Wizard

A44 Appendix D
Figure D.10 Selecting Fields in the Form Wizard
Next, you need to select the fields to include in the form. Notice the list of available fields in the dialog box. To include a field, select it and then click on the greater-than symbol (>). If you want to include all of a table’s fields, select the double greater-than symbol (>>). You can remove a field from the Selected Fields list by clicking on the less-than symbol (<). Figure D.10 illustrates the steps in selecting fields.
Next, you need to select a layout for your form. For most forms, the Columnar layout works well, but you may want to experiment with the other layouts. When you select the radio button for a layout, a mock-up of that layout appears in the lefthand side of the dialog box. When you have selected your layout, click on Next, which brings up a dialog box that lets you name your form. You should name the form so that it is easy to recognize the form’s purpose. Figure D.11 shows the dialog box for selecting your layout.
Figure D.12 shows our form in Form view and Design view. (The Form view is in the upper left-hand corner of the figure.) Users interact with the form in Form view. The Form view lets users navigate among records using the controls at the bottom of the form. Users can add, update, and delete records using the form. In addition, the search function allows users to retrieve specific records.
Often the Form Wizard creates a form that is fine as is. Sometimes, however, you may want to modify the form’s appearance or add special functions, such as lists and combo boxes. You may also want to change labels to make them more meaningful. These changes are done through the Layout or Design views. (Change views by selecting the appropriate view from the Views tool on the Home ribbon.) The

Advanced Access A45
Figure D.11 Form Wizard Layout Dialog Box
Figure D.12 Form and Design Views
Layout view is simpler and is often easier to work with. The Design view is more detailed, which allows you to make some changes that are not possible in the Layout view.
Let’s take a look at a more complicated form that includes fields from multiple tables. In this case, we want to display products customers ordered. The database we will use for this is the Wish-List database that was built in Appendix C. The form will have six fields from four tables, as shown in Figure D.13. As we discussed earlier,

A46 Appendix D
Figure D.13 Query for Wish-List Form
a form can be based on a table or a query. In this case, we want to create a query that includes all the fields we want to include in the form. We will base our form on this query. You can choose fields from multiple tables in the Form Wizard, but we prefer basing the form on a query.
We want to create a special type of form that actually uses two forms: a main form and a subform. This arrangement is common when you want to display data from multiple tables. The main/subform arrangement works well in this case because it provides a clean way to show information about a customer and the items on her or his order in a single form. It also lets us view multiple products on the order at the same time. The customer and order information are shown on the main form, and the product information is shown on the subform. This may sound complicated, but the Form Wizard makes it pretty easy to create.
Once the query is created, we start the Form Wizard as before and base the form on the query, as shown in Figure D.14. We also need to select the fields to include in the form.
Clicking on Next brings up a dialog box that we did not see in our earlier example. This dialog box lets us choose how we want to view the data in the form. In this case, we want to view the data by customer, then within each customer we want to see the products ordered. The dialog box illustrates the general arrangement of the data. We also need to select “Form with Subform(s),” as shown in Figure D.15. The next two dialog boxes let us choose the layout for our form. In this case, we select “Datasheet.” Finally, we must name and save the forms. (Note that we are creating two forms with this wizard: the main form and the subform.)
Figure D.16 shows the resulting form. We can use the form to navigate among customers or among products within a particular customer’s orders. As before, we can modify the forms using the Design view.

Advanced Access A47 Figure D.14 Basing a Form on a Query Figure D.15 Form Wizard for a Main Form/Subform Figure D.16 Main/Subform

A48 Appendix D
The details of how to modify forms are beyond the scope of this appendix. To learn more about how to add controls and make other changes to forms, see https:// support.microsoft.com/en-us/office/create-a-form-in-access-5d550a3d- 92e14f38-9772-7e7e21e80c6b. Reports Like forms, Access reports show data, but reports allow you to show many more records. In addition, reports are not intended for data entry. Creating a report is very similar to creating a form.
We illustrate how to create a report using the Northwind database. We want our report to show the fields shown in Figure D.17. Often, you want a report to only show data that meet certain criteria. In this case, we only want to show data for orders that were placed in 1998 or later. Since our report is based on our query, we can limit the report by limiting the query. So we include the criteria shown in Figure D.17. (We could also use >= #1/1/1998# as our criterion.) The pound symbols (#) tell Access that you are using a date for the criterion. (See https://support.microsoft .com/en-us/office/examples-of- query-criteria-3197228c-8684-4552-ac03-aba746 fb29d8 for more information on using dates as criteria.)
After creating the underlying query, we start the Report Wizard, which is on the Create ribbon. After selecting the correct query and fields, we need to tell the wizard how we want to view the data on our report, as shown in Figure D.18. This is similar to the Main/Subform Wizard. In this case, we want the report to show the data by customer. Then within each customer, we want to see data about the customer’s
Figure D.17 Query for a Report

Advanced Access A49
Figure D.18 Report Wizard
order. In a report, you can have multiple grouping levels, which can also be added later through a dialog box. After selecting how we want to view the data, we tell Access how to sort the data and then select the report’s orientation (portrait or landscape). Note that Access automatically sorts by any grouping levels (CustomerID, in our case). For this report, sorting by OrderDate within each customer makes sense. Of course, we also need to save our report. Remember to give the report a meaningful name.
When finishing the report, you choose whether to preview the report or open it in the Design view so that you can make changes. If you preview the report, Access opens the report in a print preview mode. To exit this view, just click on the Close Print Preview button. Like forms, you can modify reports using either the Layout or Design view. See https://support.office.com/en-US/article /Introduction-to-reports -in-Access-E0869F59-7536-4D19-8E05-7158DCD3681C for more information on how to modify reports using these views. If you need to change the criteria for selecting which records to include in a report, all you have to do is change the criteria in the underlying query and then rerun the report. The new report will use the updated criteria.
Summary This appendix covers how to perform queries and create forms and reports using Microsoft Access. Here are the main points discussed in this appendix:
· Database queries · Creating queries using Query by Example · Creating forms · Creating reports

A50 Appendix D
Learning Activities
The following activities use the Northwind database, which is available from your instructor.
1. Create a query that shows the Country, City, CustomerID, and Customer CompanyName for all customers located in France, Spain, or Sweden. Sort the query by Country, then CompanyName.
2. Create a query that shows the ProductID, ProductName, and UnitPrice for all products with a UnitPrice greater than $50. Sort the query in descending order of UnitPrice.
3. Create a query that shows the CategoryName, ProductID, ProductName, and UnitPrice for all products in the Produce or Seafood categories. Sort the query in order of CategoryName, then ProductName.
4. Create a query that shows the Supplier CompanyName, CategoryName, ProductID, and ProductName for all products in the Produce or Seafood categories. Sort the query in order of Supplier CompanyName, then CategoryName, then ProductName.
5. Create a query that shows the OrderID, OrderDate, Customer CompanyName, and Country for all orders placed by customers in the United Kingdom. Sort the query by CompanyName.
6. Create a query that shows the OrderID, OrderDate, Customer CompanyName, ProductName, Quantity, and UnitPrice for all products included in the order. Use UnitPrice from the Order Details table (not the Products table). Only show orders from the companies named “Lonesome Pine Restaurant” or “Rattlesnake Canyon Grocery.” Sort the query by OrderDate, then CompanyName.
7. Create a form that will let you enter data for all fields included in the Customers table.
8. Create a form that shows the CategoryID, CategoryName, and Description for each category, along with the ProductID, ProductName, and UnitPrice for all products in that category. The form should have Category in the main form and Products in the subform.
9. Create a well-formatted report that shows the data from the query in Activity #2.
10. Create a well-formatted report that shows the Supplier’s CompanyName, CategoryName, ProductName, and UnitPrice for all products.
11. Create a well-formatted report that shows the data from the query in Activity #6.

Appendix E
Advanced Database Concepts
Learning Objectives
By reading and completing the activities in this appendix, you will be able to:
· Define terms related to conceptual data modeling · Understand the elements of a conceptual data model · Develop a conceptual data model based on business rules
Appendix Outline
Introduction The Entity-Relationship Diagram
Learning Activity E.1: Interpreting an ERD Learning Activity E.2: Reading Relationships in an ERD Creating an E-R Diagram
Introduction
The ability of a database designer to understand and model the information that an organization uses is a critical design skill. Data modelers use a variety of tools and techniques to understand an organization’s data. To understand how to properly model data, you must become familiar with a modeling approach known as entityrelationship modeling, which is the subject of this chapter.
Entity-relationship (E-R) modeling is one approach to semantic modeling. When database designers attempt to understand and represent meaning, they are engaged in semantic modeling, which can help in making database design more systematic. Although a number of approaches to semantic modeling exist, this appendix focuses on E-R modeling.
E-R modeling, introduced by Chen (1976), consists of a number of activities that help database designers understand the objects the organization wants to store information about, the important characteristics of these objects, and the associations among various objects. Although most of you probably will not design and develop a database from scratch, many of you may be involved in teams that help database experts design complex databases and data warehouses. Having some knowledge of the process will help you be a more effective team member.

A52 Appendix E
The Entity-Relationship Diagram
The end result of E-R modeling is the E-R diagram (ERD), a graphic representation of the logical structure of a database. An ERD serves several purposes. First, the database analyst/designer gains a better understanding of the information to be contained in the database through the process of constructing the ERD. Second, the ERD serves as a documentation tool. Finally, the ERD is used to communicate the logical structure of the database to users.
The E-R modeling process identifies three basic elements: entities, attributes, and relationships. These are described in the following sections.
Entities The concept of an entity is similar to the concept of a table, which we discussed in Chapter 5. An entity is a thing that can be distinctly identified (Chen 1976). In database design, entities are the “things” about which the database stores information. Entities can include, but are not limited to, the following:
· Tangible items, such as equipment · Concepts, such as accounts · People, such as employees · Events, such as sales · Places, such as business locations
The term entity type refers to a number of related items, while an entity instance refers to a single occurrence of an entity type. For example, employee number 12345 refers to a single occurrence, or entity instance, of the entity EMPLOYEE. The term entity refers to entity type. In addition, note that the term entity occurrence is sometimes used rather than entity instance.
Attributes An attribute is a single data value that describes a characteristic of an entity. Other terms, such as data item and field (which we used in Chapter 5), describe the same essential concept.
Each entity has a corresponding set of attributes that represent the information about the entity that the organization is interested in. For example, a university may wish to know the name, address, phone number, and primary email address of each student. Put in database terms, STUDENT is the entity of interest, and NAME, ADDRESS, PHONE, and EMAIL are the attributes of interest.
Primary Keys Every entity must have a primary key. The primary key is an attribute or combination of attributes that uniquely identifies an instance of the entity. In other words, no

Advanced Database Concepts A53
LEARNING ACTIVITY E.1
Interpreting an ERD
Answer these questions for the ERD shown below: 1. How many tables are represented? 2. For each table, list its primary key attribute(s) and any foreign keys in the table. 3. List the relationships represented in the ERD.
two instances of an entity may have the same value for the primary key. Later in this appendix, we discuss how to make good choices when deciding on primary keys. Sometimes it is helpful to use more than one attribute to form a primary key. When a primary key for an entity is made up of more than one attribute, the key is called a composite key.
Relationships A relationship is an association among entities. For example, a STUDENT entity might be related to a COURSE entity, or an EMPLOYEE entity might be related to an OFFICE entity. In the ERD, lines between entities represent relationships.
Different relationship degrees exist. The degree of a relationship refers to the number of entities involved in the relationship. Although others exist, it is often sufficient to understand the meaning of three relationship degrees: unary, binary, and ternary. A unary relationship (also called a recursive relationship) is a relationship involving a single entity. A relationship between two entities is called a binary relationship. When three entities are involved in a relationship, a ternary relationship exists. Relationships that involve more than three entities are referred to as n-ary relationships, where n is the number of entities involved in the relationship. In this appendix, we deal exclusively with binary relationships; other relationship degrees are beyond our scope.

A54 Appendix E
Cardinality Relationships can also differ in terms of their cardinality. Maximum cardinality refers to the maximum number of instances of one entity that can be associated with a single instance of a related entity. Minimum cardinality refers to the minimum number of instances of one entity that must be associated with a single instance of a related entity. The following examples of binary relationships illustrate the concept of maximum cardinality. Minimum cardinality is discussed later in the next section. Note that each cardinality type is followed by a shorthand notation in parentheses.
If one CUSTOMER can be related to only one ACCOUNT and one ACCOUNT can be related to only a single CUSTOMER, the cardinality of the CUSTOMERACCOUNT relationship is one-to-one (1:1). If an ADVISOR can be related to one or more STUDENTS but a STUDENT can be related to only a single ADVISOR, the cardinality is one-to-many (1:N). Finally, the cardinality of the relationship is many-to-many (M:N) if a single STUDENT can be related to one or more COURSES and a single COURSE can be related to one or more STUDENTS. Many-to- many relationships cannot be directly implemented in a relational database, so it is a common practice to convert them to a pair of one-to-many relationships. Each original entity is related to an intermediate entity, which serves to link the two original entities together. This intermediate entity is called an associative entity because it associates the original entities. This is conceptually similar to the linking table we discussed in Chapter 5.
In E-R diagrams, cardinality is represented by symbols attached to the relationship line. A single vertical line intersecting the relationship line indicates a “one” cardinality. A crow’s foot symbol indicates a “many” cardinality. (Note that there are other ways to show cardinality.) Figure E.1 (a) shows the E-R diagram for a 1:1 relationship, Figure E.1 (b) shows a 1:N relationship, and Figure E.1 (c) shows an M:N relationship that has been converted to a pair of 1:N relationships. We have also added foreign keys where necessary. (We discussed foreign keys in Chapter 5.)
When determining the cardinality of relationships, it is important to remember that cardinality specifies how many instances of an entity can be related to a single instance of a related entity. The trick to determining the cardinality of a relationship is to determine the cardinality of one side at a time.
For example, suppose you want to determine the cardinality of the STUDENT to ADVISOR relationship. The first step is to determine how many STUDENTS one ADVISOR can be related to. One ADVISOR can be related to many STUDENTS. To represent this on an E-R diagram, show the “many” symbol (the crow’s foot) next to the STUDENT entity. Next, you need to determine how many ADVISORS one STUDENT can be related to. While this may vary from school to school, in this case, the answer is one. To show this on the E-R diagram, put the “one” symbol (vertical line) next to the ADVISOR entity. Figure E.2 illustrates the process.

Advanced Database Concepts A55 Figure E.1 Cardinality Symbols Figure E.2 Determining Cardinalities

A56 Appendix E
LEARNING ACTIVITY E.2
Reading Relationships in an ERD
Answer the following questions about the ERD shown below. Partner with another student. One of you will explain your answers to 1­3, and the other will explain your answers to 4­6. 1. Are there any employees who are not assigned to an office? 2. Can there be more than one employee in an office? 3. Can there be a building with no offices? 4. Does each employee have to be assigned to an office? 5. Can there be a department with no employees assigned to it? 6. Does each employee have to be assigned to a department?
A similar process is used to determine minimum cardinality. The zero going into STUDENTS indicates that some advisors are not assigned any students. The innermost “1” going into ADVISORS shows that each student must be assigned to at least one advisor. Since the maximum cardinality from STUDENTS to ADVISOR is also 1, each student must have exactly 1 advisor. Figure E.3 shows the maximum and minimum cardinalities.
Figure E.3 Maximum and Minimum Cardinalities

Advanced Database Concepts A57
If you have trouble determining the cardinality of a relationship, the following method may help. Assign a name to the entity instance you want to hold to one. For example, if you were having trouble determining the cardinality of the ADVISOR to STUDENT relationship, you could ask yourself, “How many ADVISORS can Jan Smith have?” or “How many STUDENTS can Dr. Johnson advise?” Creating an E-R Diagram A number of steps are required to create an E-R diagram that accurately represents the organizational data. These steps are summarized in Figure E.4 and discussed in this section.
Figure E.4 Steps in Building an E-R Diagram
E-R Modeling Example: An Order Entry Form To illustrate the steps in building an E-R diagram, we analyze an Order Entry Form. A sample of the Order Entry Form is shown in Figure E.5. Note that we are purposely keeping the form very simple. For example, the customer’s address is omitted.
Figure E.5 Order Entry Form
Step 1: Model the Entities The first step in creating an E-R diagram is to model the entities. Recall that an entity is simply something about which the organization wishes to store data. A number of information sources may be helpful when identifying entities, including forms, data entry screens, reports, and user interviews.
It is important to realize that an entity is basically defined by its attributes, so when identifying entities, look for groups of related attributes. It is particularly helpful to look for possible primary keys for an entity. Generally, when a form has an

A58 Appendix E
identifier for a possible entity, it is likely to be the entity. For example, if a form contains a space for a customer number, then the database (and the E-R diagram) probably needs to contain a CUSTOMER entity.
In user interviews, be particularly aware of nouns that the user mentions. Generally, entities are named with nouns such as CUSTOMER, STUDENT, and EQUIPMENT. Nouns that crop up often in the course of a user interview are good candidates for entities.
As you identify candidate entities, also try to determine attributes for the entities. An effective technique is to write down any attributes you identify next to the entity to which they belong. This may provide a means for you to distinguish between entities and attributes, discussed later in this section.
Another useful E-R modeling technique employed by database analysts is to highlight each item on a form, report, transcript, or other information source to indicate that the item has been modeled. For example, when analyzing a form, mark each item on the form as you write it on your list of possible entities and attributes. This can serve as a useful check. You can go back through each information source and make sure each important item is marked.
At this stage, be liberal in identifying entities. If there is any possibility that some item on a form or some sentence in an interview identifies an entity, include it in the list of possible entities. It is more difficult to identify entities that are missed than it is to remove candidate entities that turn out not to be entities required in the database. Most of the potential entities that are later rejected turn out to be attributes of an entity rather than entities in their own right. These can be culled later.
In the case of the Order Entry example, there are several candidate entities. The initial analysis of the Order Entry Form indicates that there are three entities that are clearly represented on the form: ORDER, CUSTOMER, and PRODUCT.
After identifying the entities, it may be necessary to make some assumptions. For example, when deciding which attributes to place with each entity, we must make an assumption about PRICE. If the price of a product does not change from one order to another, then PRICE is a function of PRODUCT. If, however, different orders for the same product have different prices, then PRICE is a function of the relationship between PRODUCT and ORDER. In actual practice, the analyst must consult with the user representative to determine which view is correct. We will make the assumption that PRICE varies across orders–PRICE is a function of the relationship between PRODUCTS and ORDERS. At the moment, we will not assign these attributes to an entity. We will model them later in the process. Note that the attribute QTY (quantity) is purposely absent from the list to illustrate the process of checking the ERD.
Table E.1 shows the initial list of entities and attributes identified in the analysis of the Order Entry Form. The last row shows attributes that do not belong to a single entity.
Once the list of candidate entities and their attributes is complete, the database analyst must determine which entities need to be in the database and which should

Advanced Database Concepts A59

TABLE E.1 Entity List for the Order Entry Form

Entity

Attributes

Orders

ORDER-ID, DATE

Products

PRODUCT-ID, DESCRIPTION

Customers

CUSTOMER-ID, CUSTOMER-NAME

PRICE, QUANTITY

be excluded. These decisions are based on whether a candidate entity is an entity or an attribute. Many of the candidate entities clearly belong in the database. The most likely candidate entities that should be rejected are those for which no attributes have been identified. If you are unable to find any attributes for an entity, that entity is probably in reality an attribute for another entity. For example, CUSTOMERNAME might be identified as a possible entity. However, no attributes can be identified for CUSTOMER-NAME. This leads to the conclusion that CUSTOMERNAME is not an entity but is better considered an attribute of the CUSTOMER entity.
Not all cases are so clear, however. Take the example of ADDRESS. Perhaps a number of attributes were identified for this candidate entity, such as NUMBER, STREET, CITY, STATE, and POSTAL-CODE. Does the presence of these potential attributes of ADDRESS indicate that ADDRESS is an entity? Although in some situations this will be the case, more often all of these should be attributes of some other entity, such as CUSTOMER. Resolving these types of situations becomes easier with more experience in data modeling and greater knowledge of the organization.

Step 2: Choose Primary Keys
After identifying and modeling each entity and its attributes, primary keys must be chosen for each entity. For many entities, the primary key is obvious or already in place in the organization’s existing information systems. For example, a university may already be using a student identification number. In such cases, the best course of action is to retain the existing key.
When a natural primary key does not exist and is not obvious, candidate keys must be identified. The major requirement for an attribute to be a primary key is that the attribute uniquely identifies instances of the entity. In other words, for each instance of the entity, the value of the attribute must be unique. In addition, the proper functioning of the database requires that primary keys can never be null. The primary key for each entity must always have a unique, valid value for each instance of the entity.
Other characteristics of primary keys are also desirable. In general, a good primary key is sometimes called data-less. This means that no actual information is contained in the primary key. An account number, for example, typically contains no useful information and serves no purpose other than to identify an account. Primary

A60 Appendix E
TABLE E.2 Characteristics of a Good Primary Key Desirable Primary Key Characteristics 1. Uniquely identifies an entity instance 2. Nonnull (always has a value) 3. Data-less 4. Never changes
keys that are data-less also possess another desirable characteristic–they never change. Primary keys whose values change over time lead to a number of problems with maintaining the database.
An example illustrates the problem with using a primary key that does not meet the characteristics in Table E.2. Suppose that a database designer decided to make the primary key of the entity CUSTOMER the customer’s phone number. Assume for the moment that each customer has a phone number and that no two customers can have the same phone number. In other words, assume that the attribute PHONE is unique and nonnull. While this is enough for PHONE to serve as the primary key of CUSTOMER, problems may occur because PHONE is not data- less and is also subject to change. What happens if a customer changes his or her phone number? Should the database be updated to reflect a new value for a primary key? This causes a number of database maintenance problems. These maintenance problems stem from using the primary key to link records in different tables. If the primary key value is changed for a record in the CUSTOMER table, we must also change foreign key values in related records in other tables.
When no suitable primary key can be found among the existing attributes for an entity, it is acceptable to simply create a new attribute. These newly created primary keys are counters that increment with each new instance of an entity in the same manner in which a check number increments from one check to the next.
For the Order Entry example, we need to identify primary keys for three entities: ORDER, PRODUCT, and CUSTOMER. Fortunately, all of these entities have
Figure E.6 Order Entry Form Entities and Attributes

Advanced Database Concepts A61
attributes that make acceptable primary keys. For ORDER, ORDER-NO is a good choice for the primary key, for PRODUCT, PROD-ID makes an acceptable key, and CUSTOMER-ID is a good key for CUSTOMER. Notice that all of these satisfy our requirements for a primary key.They are unique for each occurrence of the entity, they will never be null, they are data-less, and they are not subject to change.
Once all the entities and their attributes and primary keys are identified, the actual drawing of the E-R diagram can begin. Figure E.6 shows the results for the Order Entry example. You might notice that the unassigned attributes from Table E.1 are missing. We will take care of this in a later step.
When all the entities, attributes, and primary keys are modeled, it is time to identify and model the relationships among entities.
Step 3: Model Relationships Relationships among entities are a critical part of the E-R diagram. When these relationships are implemented in the database, they provide the links among the various tables that give the database its flexibility. To maximize the flexibility of a database, relationships must be properly identified and modeled.
Many relationships are relatively easy to recognize, such as those between ORDER and CUSTOMER or between STUDENT and COURSE. Others, however, are less clear. Although becoming truly proficient at recognizing relationships requires experience and practice, there are some general guidelines that can help the database analyst recognize relationships.
When examining forms, reports, and entry screens, be on the lookout for entities whose attributes appear on the same form, report, or screen. Analysis of the Order Entry Form (Figure E.9) reveals three entities: CUSTOMER, ORDER, and PRODUCT. We can conclude that these entities may be related to one another. But how are they related? In cases where the form being analyzed only represents two entities, the relationship is fairly obvious–the relationship is between the two entities. However, with the Order Entry Form, there are three entities represented. Further consideration is required to determine how these entities are related. Knowing something about the organization is particularly helpful in such situations.
In the case of the Order Entry Form example, ORDER and CUSTOMER are related, as are ORDER and PRODUCT. However, we know that there may not necessarily be a relationship between PRODUCT and CUSTOMER. Because both are related to ORDER, we can report which products are ordered by a particular customer.
In some cases, the analyst works from user interviews rather than forms. In these cases, the analyst can examine transcripts of user interviews to determine the relationships among entities. Often, users mention related entities in the same sentence. Consider the excerpt from a user interview shown in Figure E.7. Notice how the user talks about orders and customers in the same sentence. Once ORDER and CUSTOMER are identified as entities, mentioning both in the same comment is a good indication that the entities are related.

A62 Appendix E
ANALYST: What information do you need to know about orders? USER: Well, for each order, we need to know the ID number, the date of the
order number, and which customer placed the order.
Figure E.7 Excerpt from a User Interview
Once you identify relationships, you need to determine the cardinalities of the relationships.
Step 4: Determine Cardinalities Recall that there are both maximum and minimum cardinalities. The maximum cardinality of a relationship is the number of instances of one entity in a relationship that can be related to a single instance of another entity in the relationship. In contrast, the minimum cardinality is the number of instances of one entity that must be related to a single instance of the related entity. Many novice database analysts find determining the cardinalities of relationships more confusing than identifying entities, attributes, and relationships. Thankfully, there are ways to make this task easier.
It is common to determine maximum cardinalities before minimum cardinalities. There are two parts to the maximum cardinality of a binary relationship, one for each entity. Recall the example of the ADVISOR-STUDENT relationship discussed earlier in this appendix. One ADVISOR can be related to many STUDENTS. This indicates that the STUDENT side of the relationship has a “many” cardinality. This is only half of the relationship’s cardinality, however. To complete the cardinality, we must recognize that one STUDENT can be related to only a single ADVISOR. This tells us that the ADVISOR side of the relationship has a cardinality of one. Thus the cardinality of the ADVISOR-STUDENT relationship is one-to-many.
One technique that often helps analysts determine the proper cardinality of a relationship is to give the instance of the single-instance side of the relationship a name. For example, consider trying to determine the cardinality of the STUDENTCOURSE relationship. First, hold the STUDENT entity to a single instance to determine the cardinality of the COURSE side of the relationship. This is easier to do if, rather than saying “How many COURSES can a STUDENT be related to?” you say “How many COURSES can Mary Wilson be related to?” The answer, of course, is “many,” so the COURSE side of the relationship has a “many” cardinality. To determine the cardinality of the STUDENT side of the relationship, ask “How many students can be related to MIS380?” Once again, the answer is “many,” indicating that the STUDENT side of the relationship also has a “many” cardinality. When asking these cardinality questions, remember that you are always determining what cardinality symbol to draw next to the entity you are not holding to one instance.

Advanced Database Concepts A63
Let’s return to the Order Entry Form example. There are two relationships: one between ORDER and PRODUCT and the other between CUSTOMER and ORDER. One instance of ORDER can be related to many instances of PRODUCT. In other words, one ORDER can contain many PRODUCTS. Thus the cardinality from ORDER to PRODUCT is many. Turning to the other side of the relationship, we can see that one instance of PRODUCT can be related to many instances of ORDER–a single PRODUCT can be on many ORDERS. So the cardinality from PRODUCT to ORDER is many. Combining the two sides gives us a many-to-many cardinality between ORDER and PRODUCT.
Now we must analyze the relationship between CUSTOMER and ORDER. A single ORDER can be related to only one CUSTOMER. In other words, a single ORDER can’t be placed by more than one CUSTOMER. This means that the cardinality from ORDER to CUSTOMER is one. On the other side, a single CUSTOMER can place many ORDERS, so the cardinality from CUSTOMER to ORDER is many, and we can say that the cardinality of the CUSTOMER-ORDER relationship is one-to-many.
Now the minimum cardinalities must be determined. Both maximum and minimum cardinalities are determined by business rules. However, cardinalities are sometimes less obvious than others when the analyst does not have good knowledge of the organization. For example, it is relatively easy to determine that an ORDER must be related to at least one CUSTOMER, indicating that the minimum cardinality from ORDER to CUSTOMER is one. The same can be said for ORDER and PRODUCT. But must a CUSTOMER be related to at least one ORDER? This is less clear. Maybe the organization allows customers to set up accounts prior to placing their first order. In this case, the minimum cardinality from CUSTOMER to ORDER is zero. We will make this assumption for the Order Entry Form example. The situation is similar for the minimum cardinality from PRODUCT to ORDER. It is reasonable to assume that we have products that have not been ordered yet. If this is allowed, then the minimum cardinality from PRODUCT to ORDER is zero.
Assumptions should only be temporary in actual practice. The analyst may have to make assumptions to be able to proceed with the analysis, but it is critical that the validity of the assumptions be checked with the users before completing the analysis.
If you have any many-to-many relationships, you must convert them to associative entities. In our example, the relationship between orders and products is a manyto-many relationship. This relationship becomes an entity, which we will call ORDERDETAILS. Recall that earlier we determined that PRICE and QUANTITY were functions of this relationship. Because of this, we assign these attributes to the ORDERDETAILS entity. Figure E.8 shows the Order Entry E-R diagram with maximum and minimum cardinalities indicated. It is now time for the last step in the E-R diagramming process, checking the model.

A64 Appendix E

Figure E.8 Order Entry Diagram

Step 5: Check the Model
The final step in creating an E-R diagram is often overlooked but is just as important as any of the previous steps. Analysts who fail to carefully check the ERD often produce diagrams of poor quality, which of course should be avoided.
To check the ERD, you must return to your original information sources: the forms, reports, and interviews with users. The basic idea is to go back to the original documents and make sure that the structure represented in the ERD can satisfy the requirements. For example, the representations in the ERD must be able to reproduce any forms or reports required. We will use the Order Entry Form, which for convenience is reproduced in Figure E.9, as an example.

ORDER ID: DATE: PRODUCT ID A123 C235 X002

44­44­4444 Jan. 3, 2021 DESCRIPTION STEREO SYSTEM 8 SPEAKER SPEAKER WIRE

CUSTOMER ID: CUSTOMER NAME: PRICE 375.00 150.00
10.00 TOTAL

Figure E.9 Order Entry Form (Repeated)

1002 ABC Inc. QTY 2 8 5

EXTENDED 750.00
1,200.00 50.00
2,000.00

The first step in using the Order Entry Form to check the ERD is to make sure that all the information contained in the form is also represented on the ERD. The easiest way to do this is to take a copy of the form and check off each item as you verify that the item is on the ERD.
Examination of the Order Entry Form shows that there are three items that are not represented on the ERD: EXT, TOTAL, and QTY. Both EXT, which is short for extended, and TOTAL can be computed, so it is not necessary to store these in the database or represent them on the ERD. In most cases, it is not necessary to store attributes that can be computed. There are times, however, when it may make sense

Advanced Database Concepts A65
Figure E.10 Complete Order Entry Model
to store an item that can be computed. For example, TOTAL can be computed, but doing so requires retrieving data from multiple records. It may be that storing this value improves performance enough to justify storing TOTAL.
Unlike EXT and TOTAL, QTY (quantity) cannot be computed and therefore must be stored in the database. Once the analyst decides that QTY should be represented on the ERD, the question becomes how to represent it. Initial ideas might include representing QTY as an attribute of ORDER or of PRODUCT. However, QTY is not really an attribute of either of these but is properly represented as an attribute of the relationship between ORDER and PRODUCT. It is not unusual to have attributes attached to relationships with a many-to- many cardinality. Adding QTY to the ERD results in the complete ERD, which is shown in Figure E.10.
Review Questions 1. Define each of the following terms: entity, attribute, relationship, composite primary key, and cardinality. 2. Explain the difference between an entity type and an entity instance. 3. Compare and contrast minimum and maximum cardinality. 4. Name the steps in building an E-R diagram (as described in the text). 5. What is a “natural” primary key? 6. Name the desirable primary key characteristics (as described in the text). 7. Explain why a primary key should be “data-less.” 8. Why is it important to check an ERD against the original information sources?
Additional Learning Activities Note: The activities below are purposely simplified from what might be included in an actual database.This was done to make the scope appropriate for an introductory class.

A66 Appendix E

1. Create an E-R diagram based on the purchase order form shown below. (Note: “Extended” is the extended cost, or quantity multiplied by cost.) State any assumptions that you made when creating the diagram.

PURCHASE ORDER FORM

PO No.: 12348

Vendor ID: 87459

Name:

Bithlo Books

Address: 27 E. SR 50

Bithlo, FL 32158

ISBN 1-55860-294-1 3-12368-998-2 2-78912-437-5

Title Database Modeling & Design Guide to the Outback Sports Heroes of the 1700’s TOTAL COST

Date: 1/8/2021

QTY 5 7 2

Cost 10.00 12.00 16.25

Extended 50.00 84.00 32.50
166.50

2. Your friend wants your help in creating a database that will help her keep track of members of a student club. She wants to be able to track basic contact information for members, including names, primary email addresses, and on-campus addresses. In addition, she wants to track any leadership positions members currently hold. (She does not care about past positions.) Finally, she wants to store any other clubs to which members belong. Only the names of the other clubs need to be stored in the database. Create an E-R diagram that meets your friend’s requirements. State any assumptions you made.
3. Create an E-R diagram that could be used to create a database to track your music collection. For each song, you need to know the title, artist(s), date published, and album on which the song appeared. Keep in mind that an artist can have multiple albums and that a song may involve more than one artist. Be sure to state any assumptions you make.
4. You want to create a database that can help you keep track of your movie collection. For each movie, you want to store the title of the movie; the year it was released; the name and nationality of the director; and the full names, nationalities, and birth dates of the female and male lead actors. You also want to store the genre of each movie (such as comedy, sci-fi, etc.). Create an E-R diagram that represents these requirements. State any assumptions you make.
References
Chen, P. P. 1976. “The entity­relationship model–Toward a unified view of data.” ACM Transactions on Database Systems 1(1): 9­36.

Advanced Database Concepts A67
Glossary
Binary relationship: A relationship involving two entities. Business rule: A statement that defines or constrains an aspect of a business with the
intent of controlling behaviors within the business. Composite primary key: A primary key made up of two or more attributes. Entity: A thing that can be distinctly identified in a conceptual data model; the “thing”
about which one wants to store data in a database. Depending on the context, “entity” may refer to an entity type or an entity instance. Entity instance: A single occurrence of an entity type. Entity-relationship modeling: The process of creating an entity-relationship diagram (ERD). Entity type: A category or collection of entity instances. E-R diagram (ERD): A graphical representation of the conceptual structure of a database. Many-to-many: A form of maximum cardinality indicating that more than one instance of an entity can be related to more than one instance of a related entity. Maximum cardinality: The maximum number of instances of one entity that can be associated with a single instance of a related entity. Minimum cardinality: The minimum number of instances of one entity that must be associated with a single instance of a related entity. One-to-one: A form of maximum cardinality indicating that a single instance of an entity can be related to only one instance of a related entity. One-to-many: A form of maximum cardinality indicating that a single instance of an entity can be related to more than one instance of a related entity. Primary key: An attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies an instance of an entity. Relationship: An association among entities or between instances of the same entity. Ternary relationship: A relationship involving three entities. Unary relationship: A relationship that includes only one entity; this represents a situation in which a record in a table is related to another record in the same table. Also known as a recursive relationship.

Appendix F
Excel Fundamentals
Learning Objectives
By reading and completing the activities in this appendix, you will be able to:
· Navigate the Microsoft Excel interface · Work with cells and ranges of cells in Excel · Enter data, formulas, and functions · Choose and implement appropriate functions · Work with ranges of cells · Format a spreadsheet to improve readability · Appropriately choose between absolute and relative cell referencing · Create charts using Excel · Prepare a spreadsheet for printing
Appendix Outline
Introduction Excel Fundamentals Editing and Formatting Worksheets Functions and Formulas Charts Printing
Introduction
The purpose of this appendix is to help you gain fundamental hands-on spreadsheet skills. We discussed the purposes of electronic spreadsheets in Chapter 6 of the main text, and here we delve into how to actually use them. Although this appendix uses Microsoft Excel, many of the skills you will gain will transfer to other spreadsheet software, such as OpenOffice Calc, Google Sheets, and Numbers for Mac.
In the book, we explained that the power of a spreadsheet comes from the fact that it can store information as relationships among cells rather than as simple text or numbers. Of course, a spreadsheet can store numbers and text as well. Because the spreadsheet uses relationships when you change a value in a cell, all cells that depend on that value also change. So it is possible to update very complex spreadsheets quickly and accurately. Spreadsheets can be extremely complex, with tens of thousands of cells. In practice, the capacity of an Excel spreadsheet seems limitless. Of course, there are limits to the size and complexity that Excel can handle. Check out

A70 Appendix F

the following link to learn more about Excel’s capacity: https://support.office.com/ en-za/article/Excel-specifications-and-limits- 1672b34d-7043-467e-8e27 -269d656771c3.
Note that we use Excel 2020 for Mac throughout this appendix. Some of you may be using other versions of Excel, designed for Windows. You will find that virtually all the material presented here applies to both versions.
This appendix is a little different because it relies on videos rather than text and figures. For each section, you should first view the appropriate videos and then try the activities that go along with that set of videos. The relevant videos are listed at the beginning of each section.

Excel Fundamentals
This section is designed to help you gain a working knowledge of the fundamentals of Excel. Please watch the videos in the Excel Fundamental

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